Lesson 1.7 · Unit 1 · CED topic 1.7
Comparison: state formation, c. 1200 to c. 1450
This lesson practices comparison, the reasoning process the CED attaches to this topic. Comparison does not mean listing facts about two societies, because it means saying what they share, how they differ, and why. The topic: how states formed and developed between about 1200 and 1450 in East Asia, the Islamic world, South and Southeast Asia, the Americas, Africa, and Europe.
Learning objective.
- 1N. Explain the similarities and differences in the processes of state formation from c. 1200 to c. 1450.
Historical developments.
- 3.2.I.A. Empires and states in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity in the 13th century. This included the Song Dynasty of China, which utilized traditional methods of Confucianism and an imperial bureaucracy to maintain and justify its rule.
- 3.2.I.B.i. State formation and development demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, including the new Hindu and Buddhist states that emerged in South and Southeast Asia.
- 3.2.I.D.i. In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, and expanded in scope and reach.
- 3.2.I.D.ii. In Africa, as in Eurasia and the Americas, state systems demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, and expanded in scope and reach.
How to compare
A strong comparison has three parts.
- A category. Compare along one dimension, such as how rulers justified power, how states raised resources, or what role religion played.
- A similarity and a difference. Both are needed. "Both used religion to support rule" is a similarity. "One relied on a bureaucracy and the other on personal ties" is a difference.
- A reason. Explain why. Geography, trade, and earlier traditions are common reasons.
Comparing states
| Region | How rulers held power | Main resources | Role of religion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Song China | Bureaucracy chosen by exam | Rice farming, iron, trade, paper money | Confucianism and Buddhism |
| Dar al-Islam | Sultans, military leaders | Trade and agriculture | Islam and Islamic law |
| South and Southeast Asia | Kings, sultans, regional kingdoms | Rice, sea trade, tribute | Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam |
| The Americas | Divine kings, tribute, labor service | Maize, chinampas, labor service | State religions |
| Africa | Kings and city-states, trade-based states | Gold, cattle, trade | Islam, Christianity, local religions |
| Europe | Feudal lords and decentralized monarchs | Agriculture on manors | Roman Catholic Church |
Some patterns stand out.
- Similarities. Almost every state used religion or ideas to justify rule, such as Confucianism in China, Islam in Delhi and Mali, Hinduism and Buddhism in Khmer and Vijayanagara, divine kingship in the Inca state, and Christianity in Ethiopia and Europe. Many states relied on agriculture and on trade, and many taxed trade or used tribute and labor service.
- Differences in method. China relied on a bureaucracy selected by examination, which is more impersonal than the personal ties of European feudalism. The Mexica and Inca extracted tribute and labor from conquered peoples, while Delhi's sultans taxed a mostly Hindu population. Some states, like Srivijaya and the Swahili cities, were built on sea trade, while others, like the Khmer and the Inca, relied on land and agriculture.
- Differences in centralization. China, the Inca, and Mamluk Egypt had strong central governments, while Europe and the Hausa kingdoms were decentralized.
Why the differences?
Geography and resources played a role. Trade routes by sea or land made some regions rich through taxation. Earlier traditions mattered too, since China had centuries of bureaucratic experience, while Europe inherited the broken Roman state and the strength of the Church. Contact with other societies also mattered, since Muslim and Chinese technologies moved across Eurasia, while the Americas developed in isolation from Afro-Eurasia.
Figure 1.1 in Lesson 1.1 shows that these state formations occurred at different times, so comparing them requires careful dating.
A kind of source the exam uses: a modern historian's table comparing the sizes and capitals of major states around 1300. This is a description of a type of source, not a quotation from a real table.
Imagine a table that lists each state's capital, ruler, and estimated population, from the Yuan dynasty of China, which was by far the largest, to the small kingdoms of Europe.
Sourcing (HIPP). A modern historian would compile such a table from many sources, so the point of view is that of scholarship. Its purpose is to summarize and allow comparison, and its audience is students and scholars. Because population numbers for this period are estimates based on incomplete records, such a table is useful for rough comparison of scale but should not be treated as exact.
Claim. Chinese states were much larger than European states around 1300.
Evidence. A scholar's table lists the Yuan dynasty's population as far greater than those of the small kingdoms of Europe.
Reasoning. The scale of the Chinese state gave it more resources for administration and defense than European kingdoms had. A limit is that population numbers for this period are estimates from incomplete records, so they support a general claim about relative size better than any exact figure.
Question. Compare how two states justified their rule between 1200 and 1450.
Model. Both Song China and the Inca Empire tied their rule to a belief system. Song rulers used Confucian ideas of virtuous government and a bureaucracy chosen by exam, while the Inca ruler was believed to be descended from the sun god, which gave him divine authority. The difference is that Chinese legitimacy rested on moral conduct and learning, whereas the Inca emperor's rested on divine descent, which reflects the different religious traditions of each region.
Learning Objective 1N is a comparison objective. On the exam, pick a category (justifying power, raising resources, role of religion), give one similarity and one difference, and explain why. Use specific examples named in the CED: Song bureaucracy, Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara, Maya, Mexica, Inca, Great Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, and decentralized Europe.
- What are the three parts of a strong comparison?
Show answer
A category of comparison, at least one similarity and one difference, and a reason that explains them.
- Give one similarity among states of this period.
Show answer
Many states used religion or ideas to justify rule, such as Confucianism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, or divine kingship.
- Contrast China's government with Europe's.
Show answer
China had a centralized bureaucracy chosen by exam, while Europe was decentralized and held together by personal feudal ties.
- Contrast sea-based and land-based states.
Show answer
Sea-based states such as Srivijaya and the Swahili cities relied on trade revenue, while land-based states such as the Khmer and the Inca relied on agriculture and labor.
- Why did Chinese bureaucratic traditions matter?
Show answer
China had centuries of experience with bureaucratic government, which gave Song rulers tools for central control that Europe, with its broken Roman inheritance, lacked.
- Which two American states relied on obtaining resources from conquered peoples?
Show answer
The Mexica, through tribute, and the Inca, through the mit'a labor system.